Reagans War on Drugs Essay

The phrase â€Å"sex, drugs, and rock and roll† held true to its well-earned spot in 1970’s and 1980’s society. With a new, looser culture, explicit music, raunchy and rambunctious movies as well as a societal focus on many things immoral, it was an era of challenging social norms. As the use of recreational and psychoactive drugs, as well as alcohol, increased, a new problem arose; how does law enforcement and the government undo the damage being made by this new society? Laws were passed, bureaus and commissions were formed, and the President of the United States began what he called â€Å"The War on Drugs†. Over the years, some of these solutions have proven to make some impact. The initiation, tactics, and attempts at dealing a major blow to drug abuse have all affected the way America sees drugs today. A new type of warfare had made its way into the country, and after all these years, it has made its fair share of positive and negative effects. â€Å"Just say no. † (Reagan Declares War on Drugs, 1982). This was one of the many scare tactics used in America’s new war on drugs. The president needed to construct a plan to detract the public eye from drugs’ fame. Nancy Reagan was equally as adamant about keeping America safe and clean. She traveled to and spoke at many schools, enforcing the idea of simply refusing the temptation of drugs. Before the Reagan’s began their wartime, Richard Nixon introduced his own ‘war’ on drugs, stating, â€Å"America’s public enemy number one is drug abuse. In order to fight and defeat this enemy, it is necessary to wage a new, all-out offensive. † (Remarks About an Intensified Program for Drug Abuse Prevention, 1971). This mindset was yet another strategy used to make America energized and willing to fight this war. Nixon passed the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act in the 1970’s as a way to keep a constant eye on the drug industry. This act required the pharmaceutical industry to maintain physical security and strict record keeping for certain types of drugs. When Reagan became president he gave a speech, announcing, â€Å"We are taking down the surrender flag that has flown over so many drug efforts; we’re running up a battle flag. † (Reagan’s ‘War on Drugs’ Speech, 1981). America’s first clear attack on the use of drugs was verbal – this strategy temporarily affected the country, but more had to be done to combat this enemy. The United States and its’ presidents had to take a fighting stance if they wanted to decrease drug abuse. One of the first instances of this was President Nixon’s Operation Intercept. Announced even before the official ‘war’ on drugs began – in September 1969 – this campaign focused on reducing the amount of cannabis entering the United States from Mexico. Following this effort, the United States government funded the controversial Methadone Maintenance Program. Methadone Maintenance treatment, a program in which addicted individuals receive daily doses of methadone, was developed as part of a broad, multicomponent treatment program. † (Center for Disease Control, 2002). After Nixon’s trials and failures, President Carter went at the fight with a different, looser approach. Carter called for the decriminalization of marijuana. With a less vicious outlook, Carter believed that the punishment of a crime should not be more brutal than that said crime. President Carter’s tactic proved unworthy, as while he was in office, use of cocaine increased dramatically. Finally, as Reagan took center stage and stepped into presidential office, he kept a strong belief against this criminal act. Reagan created the Office of National Drug Control Policy to eradicate illicit drug use, manufacturing and trafficking of drugs, as well as put an end to drug related violence and crimes. Reagan put policies in place to strengthen his deadly grasp on drug-ridden society. He required mandatory minimum prison sentences for drug dealers – a policy he initiated in hopes of making drugs seem less glamorous and infinitely more criminal. He began the South Florida Task Force, which dealt with the increase of drug trafficking in Southern Florida. This force worked hand in hand with the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI). Operation Swordfish was put in place by the DEA to attack international drug organizations. â€Å"The operation was dubbed operation swordfish because it was intended to snare the ‘big fish’ in drug trade. † (Drug Enforcement Agency, Operation Swordfish, 1980). Vice President George H. W. Bush began insisting that the CIA and U. S. Military become involved in drug interdiction efforts. The Drug-Free Media Campaign Act of 1988 was passed in hopes to convince America’s youth and future generations to stray away from drugs. After all of these battles, did America finally win this war? â€Å"The U. S. Federal Government spent over $15 billion in 2010 on the War on Drugs, a rate of about $500 per second. † (The Budgetary Impact of Drug Prohibition, 2010). This is a sign that perhaps Reagan’s War on Drugs wasn’t quite as effective as he had so hoped. The United States today has the highest incarceration rate and prison population of any country in the world. This is provided in part by the amount of arrests and incarcerations due to drug sentencing guidelines and policies. â€Å"In the 1980’s, while the number of arrests for all crimes had risen by 28%, the number of arrests for drug offenses rose 126%. † (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2010). This did not specifically mean that there were more drug-related crimes, but that law enforcement had simply cracked down on the arrests of said crimes. In comparison, Time Magazine’s study states, â€Å"Drug convictions went from 15 inmates per 100,000 adults in 1980 to 148 in 1996, an almost tenfold increase. More than half of America’s federal inmates today are in prison on drug convictions. In 2009 alone, 1. 66 million Americans were arrested on drug charges†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Time Magazine, 2012). While this war on drugs may still be in effect, it may have positive outcomes for further in the future. As for the time being, America has two main stances on the subject: some call for further reparations in the war on drugs, while others believe the war is unsuccessful, and the focus needs to be shifted to more important and dire issues. The War on Drugs has failed. † (19 Member Commission, June 2, 2011). In another instance, a poll was taken throughout the country, and its results, â€Å"three in four Americans believe that the War on Drugs is failing. † (October 2008 Poll). Suggestions of decriminalization have been made by many. The legalization of drugs is claimed to have many positive effects on the country as a whole, including positive economic effects. While this ‘war’ on drugs started off as a full-fledged attack on all users and distributors of illegal narcotics, it seems to have transformed into a war against itself: will continuing these attacks help the country, or will allowing certain, less harmful drugs to be legal prove to be a more reasonable solution? â€Å"Legalizing drugs would save taxpayers $76. 8 billion a year in the United States – $44. 1 billion from law enforcement savings, and at least $32. 7 billion in tax revenue†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Harvard Study by Jeffrey A. Miron, 2008). In addition, the policies put into effect by Nixon and Reagan may ave had a positive impact on crime in the United States, but it may not have been in the way they had wished. â€Å"Drugs got enormously cheaper so users didn’t have to hit as many old ladies over the head and steal their pocketbooks. † (Travis Wendel, â€Å"More Drugs, Less Crime†, 2010). Murders, robberies and other violent crimes seemed to decline as the price of drugs went down – could this happen if drugs were legalized as well? America in this day and age has a vast amount of governmental and international issues in desperate need of resolution – is drug control still one of them? The United States of America is a country known by many as ‘land of the free’, but does this mean that its citizens should be allowed to participate in activities such as drug use with such a negative connotation? Did Reagan’s War on Drugs really make an effective impact on the way America sees drugs today? The answer to that question is this – while his tactics may not have worked the way he had desired, America as a whole has indeed seen less drug related crime. This does not mean it does not exist, nor does it mean that by legalizing drugs will solve all of the country’s problems. What this does mean is that Reagan’s war on drugs did not put an end to drug use, but it just may have opened America’s eyes to more clear and present danger. While drugs are in no way going to solve America’s problems, the once War on Drugs may now need to be adjusted to a name more fitting. A War on Crime as a whole perhaps? A War on Drug Related Violence? Reagan had the correct idea, now the country can put it into proper use. His War was not an end all war, but it just may have been enough to enhance America as a whole.

Global Online Marketing: A Concept Replacing Traditional Marketplaces

Abstract: Contemporary marketing has evolved into a large concept which includes the aspect of â€Å"idea marketing†. As the definition of marketing has evolved, so has the need for marketers to use technology to support the process. This paper discusses global online marketing, its advantages, and the ethical dilemmas associated with its use. It also then discusses whether global online marketing can take over the traditional marketplace and whether this would prove to be beneficial for both consumers and marketers. Introduction: Marketing is an evolutionary concept which has been constantly growing over time, specifically in the more recent decades that have brought along significant technological change. While the definition of marketing has evolved in this era, so have the manner in which it is conducted and the mediums that it is conducted through (Rossiter, 2001). This significant change has caused the uprising of several questions which include has the meaning of marketing changed with the onset of the internet?, is the internet an ethical tool to use in attempting to persuade consumers to purchase products?, and whether online marketing has taken over the traditional marketplace and how? This paper will focus upon the topic of global online marketing and whether this phenomenon has replaced the traditional marketplace. The paper will begin by focusing upon the changing definition of marketing and how technology has accommodated it, continue with an analysis of online marketing, the benefits provided to customers/marketers through online marketing, and the ethical dilemmas associated with its used. The paper will then analyse how global online marketing has become the norm and the benefits and/or consequences of it replacing the traditional marketplace along with recommendations regarding how the internet can be used to the consumer/marketers’ advantage and how its negative impact can be reduced. The paper will conclude with a summary of the main points mentioned Evolution of the Definition of Marketing and its Impact on Technology: Marketing has been a concept which has gradually outgrown its previous definitions as various external factors have affected the way it is interpreted and understood by marketers and scholars alike. While there is increasing debate regarding the definition of marketing, Peter & Olsen stress that most scholars in the discipline of marketing are satisfied with Kotler’s definition of marketing which says, â€Å"Marketing is human activity directed at satisfying needs and wants through exchange processes† (Kurzabard & Soldow, 2007, p. 37). However, for those who were slightly unsatisfied with this previous definition of marketing, the American Marketing Association described marketing as, â€Å"The process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, & distribution of ideas, goods, & services to create exchanges that satisfy individual & organizational objectives.†(Kurzbard & Soldow, 2007, p. 38). However, most of the previous definitions applied to marketing, emphasized that the main goal of marketing was the exchange of goods and services (Kotler, 1972). Nonetheless, we often see people campaigning in the streets for support for a particular cause or we are approached by people who ask for donations for a particular charity. While we may have no particular association with the cause or the charity and we expect nothing in return from them personally, we are influenced or affected by the ideas presented to us. This can also be regarded as a form of â€Å"non-business marketing† and can be associated with Kotler’s classification of marketing into three levels of consciousness, the first regarding it as a business subject associated with buyers, sellers, & other economic products & services, and the second extending marketing as appropriate for all organizations that have customers (including non-profit organisations) (Kotler, 1972). While the definition of marketing had previously evolved to include the activities of non-profit organizations seeking to gain customers/donaters/supporters, etc., it can now be classified to encompass much more than that. This is described by Kotler’s (1972) consciousness three which describes marketing as â€Å"an organisation’s attempt to appeal to its public, not only its consuming public†. While this level of marketing may not have been given a high level of support in 1972, contemporary business practices urge organizations to be socially responsible, encourage motivational behaviour with employees, and also require coordination with suppliers. Thus, it is now just as essential to market an organisation appropriately to employees, society, suppliers, the media, and several other stakeholder groups of the organisation. Some stakeholder groups can be effectively dealt with personally, such as banks who are offering the organisation a loan. This institution can be personally marketed an idea which leads the bank officer to sanction the loa n and would result in an exchange between the two parties as the bank gives the organisation money and the organisation agrees to pay the bank interest on the borrowed amount. However, how can the director of an organisation employing thousands of employees worldwide influence the employees to accept a new employment contract promoting a different combination of incentivesHow can he/she personally motivate them or congratulate them on a job well done? Coming back to the traditional view of marketing as a profitable process between buyers and sellers, we can apply the following scenario. How can an organisation encourage an overweight customer to try a newly formed formula which would help her reduce her weight when she is not even aware of the product and perhaps the fact that she even requires itIt would first be essential for the organisation to form the idea within her mind that she is overweight and then inform her about the existing product. However, it is obvious that this tas k cannot be fulfilled in person as that might be considered rude and highly inappropriate. This is where technology intervenes and begins our discussion on the concept of â€Å"idea marketing† and global online marketing. Global Online Marketing and its Advantages: The evolving definition of marketing and the need of contemporary businesses to satisfy various stakeholder groups have led to the increased use of technology in marketing processes. Thus, as a business seeks to satisfy stakeholders or project certain ideas towards them, it uses the aid of technological tools such as portals, customer relationship management software, employee management software, and websites. A charity uses the aid of a website which informs all of its stakeholders regarding its cause, how it seeks to implement it, and all other parties that it is associated with. In the same manner, a business organisation uses the aid of a website to illustrate all of its processes including sections mentioning its relationship with its suppliers, social responsibility practices, and sections featuring its financial statements and the dividends paid to shareholders. Similarly, customer relationship management software is used to gauge and understand consumer wants, market potenti ally desired products to consumers, and facilitate communication between the organisation and the customer (Pines, Peppers, & Rogers, 2009). While the internet aids in satisfying these needs of contemporary business organizations, it also serves the current definition of marketing which includes â€Å"idea marketing† and is said to have a core concern of â€Å"producing desired responses† (Kotler, 1972). Thus, while it would be difficult to convince an overweight customer that she needs to try a new weight loss formula or to attempt to sell an exceptionally revealing piece of lingerie to a woman who is conservatively dressed, doing this through online marketing would make it more convenient and acceptable to both the customer and the marketer. There may also be instances in which the customer may feel uncomfortable in walking into a store and asking the salesman which type of brassiere would make her breasts look more erector explaining the condition of a particularly nasty occurrence of acne on her upper thigh and asking what type of ointment would help cure it? Online marketing would help in this regard as it enables open communication between the customer and the marketer and enables the marketer to expressly form ideas into the customer’s mind. As Kotler (1972) mentions, the marketer â€Å"seeks to influence† in any manner and then eventually seeks to â€Å"produce a desired response† which may be in the form of support for a cause or an idea or in the form of the purchase of a product. Thus, global online marketing is usually conducted through social media platforms, websites, and personal email in certain situations. The marketer uses these platforms to illustrate their message with the aid of pictures, virtual demonstrations, and articles which may seek to persuade or inform the customer regarding various uses, benefits, and opinions regarding the product (Pires, Stanton, & Rita, 2006). This allows the flow of informat ion from the marketer to the customer and allows convenience to both parties. For example, it is not easy for a marketer to stop people in the street and coerce them to view the design of a new mobile phone and ask them for their opinion on it. For all the marketer may know, the person may not be the least interested in mobile phones or may not need a new one. It is also then not easy to stop all of the people in the street and tell them about the various types of reviews that the newly designed phone has. Accordingly, online marketing enables the marketer to efficiently and effectively aim at the target audience and project their message towards them. It also enables the marketer to give the customer as much information as they deem necessary in order to persuade the customer to support a particular idea or purchase a particular product. More importantly, it enables the marketer to quickly transmit this information to the customer such as in the instance of a sale or a contest occu rring for a particular product or brand (Burton, 2001). As Kotler’s (1972) explanation of generic marketing and the strategies involved in producing a desired response from the customer includes designing the product in a more attractive manner, presenting the product to the customer on more attractive terms, adding symbolic significance to the product, and making the object more accessible, online marketing assists each of these processes. While online marketing helps the marketer provide the customer with information, illustrations, and persuasion of the product’s attractiveness and also mentions the terms on which the product can be bought or acquired (such as discounts or a giveaway contest), it can also help add symbolic significance to the product by featuring an article or video, showing the product being used by a celebrity or on a particular occasion. Moreover, it has enabled marketers to get feedback regarding their product and effectively communicate with cu stomers through an economical platform. One very important function that online marketing is now performing for the marketer is making the product more accessible for the customer (Rossiter, 2001). Through e-commerce, marketers have been able to target a large amount of consumers and made the product highly accessible through the click of a mouse. Thus, through the aid of cookies and through previous purchase behaviour, businesses are able to gather information regarding what the consumer needs or is interested in and then make customly designed offers which suit the customer’s needs. This has enabled an increase in sales and has also enabled the marketer to save costs which are associated with setting up and managing physical shops and employing large amounts of labour. As emphasized by Pines, Peppers, & Rogers (1995), it has also enabled marketers to anticipate consumer wants and personally develop a learning relationship with their customers by understanding what their cus tomers need and enabling them to retain their customers forever. Online marketing enables mass customization in an economical manner, which is not a process that can be fulfilled in a traditional shop in a cost-effective manner and if done manually would probably lead to a confusing and disorganized situation (Gummesson, 2002). However, global online marketing has not only facilitated the marketer, but has specifically empowered the customer as well according to Pires, Stanton, & Rita (2006). It enables the customer to ask questions and access information without the obstacle of embarrassment, lack of demonstration, and at their own leisure. Thus, while a traditional shop may close at 6 pm, a potential customer may require information regarding a product after he/she gets off from work. Online marketing enables the customer to easily and effectively gain this information through technological means at any time he/she pleases. Moreover, online marketing has enabled the customer to ac cess as much information as he/she deems necessary and guide the marketer regarding his/her needs and demands. The customer is able to provide feedback and make comments regarding a product. Moreover, the customer is also able to customly design the type of product he/she needs or suggest the type of offer that would attract him/her towards purchasing a particular product. This enables the customer to take charge of his/her preferences and purchases and adds to the customer’s convenience. This is also said to result in a higher satisfaction level within consumers (Gummesson, 2002). While there are numerous advantages of global online marketing, there are also certain disadvantages or ethical concerns associated with its use. Ethical Concerns of Global Online Marketing: While a consumer may significantly benefit from targeted offers which suit his/her needs/wants, it is also of concern, how marketers are able to make these offersOnline marketing software enables a marketer to install cookies on the consumer’s computer and keep track of the types of websites that the consumer regularly visits and the types of purchases he/she makes. Accordingly, while keeping track of the consumer’s behaviour, the marketer is able to show the consumer advertisements of offers that may interest him/her. However, how often have you opened a website and made a secret purchase which you did not want anyone to know aboutThen, how is it ethical for a business to know what you have been doing onlineThis raises the concern of privacy and plagues many consumers who are not highly enthusiastic about being followed online (Philip, 2000). Moreover, how would you feel if you made a purchase of lovely pink bunny slippers online and the very next day when your friend was using your computer, an advertisement featuring a similar product popped upIt would most likely be a cause of immense annoyance and embarrassment which is also an ethical concern of global online marketing. It is deemed highly unethical to bombard consumers with advertising material when they are least expecting it or especially when they least desire it. Moreover, several studies have also claimed that bombarding a consumer with offers for a particular product when they do not desire such interruptions can lead to resentment towards the product and create a negative image of the product for the consumer. It is also highly inappropriate for organizations to bombard the consumer with advertisements when they are not sure whether the consumer is in appropriate company to view those advertisements or whether it is the appropriate occasion (Golding, 2000). An additional ethical concern is the processing of online transactions which involves the collection of financial information su ch as credit card numbers and bank account details. Research has proven that 48% of consumers are highly suspicious of this process and refrain from online shopping because they are unwilling to divulge such information online. This is a major concern because some of this information is used unethically or fraudulently which then leads to severe consequences for the customer. Moreover, customers are also highly skeptical of online hackers who break into such websites and gain such financial information regarding consumers, thus then using it in a negative manner in order to cause the consumer financial loss. This is known as cyber crime (Fuat, 1997). The dilemma of not knowing who you are communicating with and the credibility of the person/organisation is the main ethical concern which is highly distressing for customers and is a hinderance which organizations are attempting to overcome. Despite the ethical concerns of using online marketing, a large proportion of marketers/busines ses have successfully adopted it and it is becoming increasingly accepted amongst consumers. It may be said that global online marketing is taking over traditional marketplaces. Is Global Online Marketing Taking Over Traditional Marketplaces and Should It? The use of online marketing is becoming widespread despite the initial reaction of consumers of suspicion regarding whether it can be ethically used or not. Allegedly, the concept has turned the whole world into a global marketplace as businesses are easily able to sell and market their products to customers in different countries. Many businesses have adopted the concept and made it the prime focus of selling/marketing to customers, an example is Amazon. While the concept has largely taken over the traditional concept of a marketplace and may be replacing the traditional marketplace at an increasing rate, there are many reasons why it cannot fully take over and also many reasons why it should not (Hunt, 1994). The advantages of global online marketing include convenience, access to information, accessibility, ease of use, and access to a large market which can be targeted effectively. It also enables making partnerships with other firms on the basis of sharing data. However, the eth ical dilemmas concerning it include privacy issues, suspicion regarding the revealing of financial details, and bombarding the customer with unwanted advertisements at inconvenient times. Similarly, the reasons that global online marketing cannot fully take over the concept of the traditional marketplace include the fact that half the world still does not have internet access and many businesses are targeting certain groups of consumers that are not privileged with access/knowledge of using the Internet. For example, consumers in many Third World countries and in other inaccessible areas do not have access to the Internet and are often even unaware of how to use a computer. It would be highly ineffective for a marketer to attempt to target and reach these audiences with online marketing. Another important reason that global marketplaces cannot take over traditional marketplaces is because some products require physical viewing and cannot be purchased after viewing online demonstrati ons or reading descriptions of the product. This may be specifically true in the case of automobiles or even in the case of clothes which need to be tried on before purchase. Moreover, while in some situations the client may feel more relaxed in talking about or asking questions about the product online, there are some sitatuons which require personal involvement and personal contact between the client and the marketer (Hunt, 1994). For example, many brides-to-be would not be highly happy about conversing with the computer regarding their preferred wedding dress and would appreciate personally talking to a sales representative. While these are some of the reasons that online marketplaces cannot take over traditional marketplaces, there are also some reasons which suggest that this should not happen even if it is becoming the norm. First of all, online marketing is taking over the advantages of the value chain and is possibly taking over the concept of a retail store, thus putting ma ny retail stores at a disadvantage. This can mean a loss of business for many people who are in this part of the value chain. Moreover, online marketing means that there is less need for physical labour and a different type of expertise required which may also significantly increase the rate of unemployment and may be a major concern (Woodall, 2001). Another problem with online marketing is that the image it portrays to consumers and the manner in which it glamorously displays products coaxes many consumers to spend hard-earned money on products that they do not need. It often causes consumers to purchase goods that they would not have purchased otherwise and is a rising concern for many countries as it has led to problems of shopaholics. In other cases, consumers are often sold products that they thought were somethingelse or looked differently online, but were given products which are vastly different from their expectations (Woodall, 2001). Thus, it is evident that while the conc ept of global online marketing is becoming increasingly popular, widely accepted, and gives advantages and empowerment to both the marketer and consumer, the concept still has certain disadvantages which may prevent it from becoming the sole form of business between organizations and consumers. Accordingly, it is recommended that global marketers use this platform as a way to communicate with their customers and project ideas into their minds while also gaining essential feedback, but not to rely on it as the sole form of communication or exchange between customers and the organisation. Moreover, organizations should be sensitive towards privacy issues of customers and refrain from the use of cookies without explicit permission from their customers. They should rely upon customer feedback, previous purchase information, and comments that the customer willingly provides regarding his/her purchasing preferences. Organisations should refrain from using pop-up advertisements and target the customer in a more discreet manner such as when he/she clicks upon a certain relevant page or through personal email or social media platforms (news popping up in newsfeed on Facebook). Other forms of marketing such as radio, television, and personal contact should also be used in order to be able to facilitate and attract all types of customers instead of limiting the market to only a particular group of customers. Conclusion: The paper discusses how the evolving definition of marketing has resulted in the need to use technology to support marketing practices. It has established that there are various advantages associated with using online marketing which include convenience, accessibility, and the amalgamation of essential information for both customer and marketer. However, the paper has also pointed out that there are certain disadvantages to the use of online marketing and reasons why it cannot take over the concept of a traditional marketplace. References Burton, D. (2001) â€Å"Critical Marketing Theory: The Blueprint†. European Journal of Marketing. Vol. 35 5/6 pp. 742-743 Fuat, A. 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(1995) â€Å"Do You Want to Keep Your Customers Forever?† Harvard Business Review. pp. 105-114 Pires, G., Stanton, J. & Rita, P. (2006) â€Å"The Internet, Consumer Empowerment, and Marketing Strategies†. European Journal of Marketing. Vol. 40 9/10 pp. 936-949 Rossiter J. (2001) â€Å"What is marketing knowledgeStage 1: Forms of marketing knowledge†. Marketing Theory. Vol. 1 pp. 9-26 Woodall, T. (2001). â€Å"The Epistobabble Kid Rides Again: A Stephen Brown (Selective) Retrospective.† Marketing Review. Vol. 2 (2) pp.147.

Difference of Othello’s Behaviour in Act One and Act Two

English Literature – Othello How is Othello’s behaviour in Act Two different from his behaviour in Act One? How do you account for this change? What consequences do you think it will have? In Act One, Othello appeared to be in control of his emotions. When Brabantio confronts Othello, accusing him of stealing and raping his daughter Desdemona by means of witchcraft, Othello is calm and tells his men to stop the fighting.Although he is being accused of kidnapping and raping Desdemona, in which the person who commits the crime would be burnt to death, Othello shows that he is unafraid of danger, ready to risk everything for the woman he loves, and is able to command others despite facing the serious accusation. He is ready to face justice, and convince the Duke of Venice that he has done nothing wrong. This shows that he is brave and confident. When he speaks to the Duke, he speaks in a respectful manner.He also promises not to be distracted by Desdemona if he is allowed to bring her together to Cyprus. His manner and promise appears to us that he is a serious, sensible and rational person. However, he behaved differently in Act Two, when he arrives in Cyprus. His behaviour is sloppy. For example, he tells the people in Cyprus that, to celebrate the defeat of the Turkish fleet, they can ‘dance’, ‘make bonfires’, and ‘sport’, i. e. to have sex. He tells the people to have party time, giving license for people to behave as they like to.Unlike the serious person he appears to be in Act One, Othello seems to be overjoyed to meet his wife Desdemona in Cyprus safely and the defeat of the Turkish fleet, becoming irrational and insensitive to the people’s fear of another attack. When he comes ashore, meeting his wife, he is overjoyed, forgetting to announce the defeat of the Turkish fleet. He greets his wife, saying ‘O my fair warrior’, and kisses her several times. It appears that he has completely forgotten his promise, not to be distracted by Desdemona, to the Duke.Cassio and Iago, on another hand, have repeatedly refers to Desdemona as ‘general’s general’, and that she is ‘in charge’. This tells us that Othello is clearly distracted by his wife, preventing him from performing his duties, as observed by his lieutenant and ancient. In Act Two Scene Three, Othello admits he is not acting rationally and not performing his best. He says, â€Å"Now by heaven, my blood begins my safer guides to rule, and passion, having my best judgment collied, assays to lead the way. This tells us that Othello himself is conscious of what he is doing. He admits to acting irrationally, following his passion to rule. This shows that he is distracted by Desdemona, because only their love and marriage would lead to Othello’s overflow of passion. This may also show that Othello follows his heart, will and passion to act and rule. When Othello finds Cassio and Montano fighting, he asks Iago what has happened without confirming with others. He does not investigate thoroughly, as Iago has hidden some of the truth.He immediately takes Cassio off his office. This can be considered as an impulsive judgment. His change of behaviour in Act Two is due to the distraction from his wife Desdemona. Because of his newly-wedded wife presence, Othello is distracted and unable to perform his duties. He is led by his passion, which is affecting him because of his sexual interest in Desdemona and his joy to be reunited with her after the rough journey on the sea. Being away from Venice may also account for his change of behaviour.Since Othello remains below the Duke and Senators in Venice, he demonstrates respectful and brave manner, so that even the Duke calls him ‘valiant Othello’. However, in Cyprus, Othello becomes the person-in-command in the whole of Cyprus. The sudden swell in his authority and power may have contributed to his irratio nal judgments and actions. In Cyprus, Othello no longer has to act in the way he has promised the Duke. He can betray the Duke’s trust, because no one in Cyprus has the power or authority to stop him, or report him to the Duke back in Venice.He reveals his sloppy behaviour, and is clearly distracted by Desdemona’s presence, preventing him from acting rationally. With Othello’s change in behaviour, it may be easier for Iago to manipulate Othello and to carry out his plan to destroy Othello’s reputation. In Act Two, Othello reveals that he follows his passion to rule, and makes impulsive judgments without investigating thoroughly. Iago observes this, and therefore use Othello’s weakness to carry out his plan by telling Othello that Desdemona has been unfaithful.Since Iago knows that Othello will not investigate thoroughly if he tells him that Desdemona has been sleeping with Cassio, it will increase Iago’s success in destroying Othello’ s reputation. Other people can use Desdemona as a means to get what they want from Othello, as she has a great influence on her husband. For example, Cassio, after losing his job, hires a band to serenade Desdemona. Cassio tries to appeal to Desdemona, so that she may help him persuade Othello to give Cassio back his job.This may result in a corrupted government, with people using tactics to win Desdemona’s favour, instead of getting the job using their own talents or strength. Lastly, since Othello acts according to his passion, Iago can, by manipulating Othello, remove those who are against him, or whose who disrespects and insults him, like Cassio who calls him ‘Honest Iago’. This will result in lack of talents and observant people in Othello’s government, because all those who are against or disrespectful to Iago can be easily removed by Iago. Therefore, Othello’s government will become corrupted.

History of Jazz Fusion. Social Changes and Jazz Fusion Essay

History of Jazz Fusion. Social Changes and Jazz Fusion - Essay Example When looking at the jazz fusions of the 1960s and 1970s, it can be seen that there is a direct relationship to both the expression of artistic advancement as well as the commerce which is associated with this. The combination of both intents by the various artists is one which has created several formulas for jazz fusion and has led to different sounds as well as new commercial opportunities for musicians. The formats and the interest which is surrounding this continues to remain as a main initiative with the idea of jazz and the promotion of specific formulas which can be used for higher interest among individuals who enjoy this particular expression of music. History of Jazz Fusion The propagation of jazz in the 1960s and the 1970s was associated with changes which were occurring in music during the time. Traditionally, jazz was known as an experimental style and was based on improvisation. However, the jazz form was constructed as the foundational movement with the ability to add in extra components to this. The construction of the jazz tradition was based first on the social roots, which was inclusive of innovation and experimentation as the basis of the art. The styles and periods that were before this time began with the blues, which emerged into swing, free jazz and jazz be-bop. Each of these related to finding a diverse way of expression, moving into improvisation that would be accepted and looking at more complex ways of examining style and expression. By looking at these components, there was the ability to create a different understanding and progression of jazz and the meanings which it held in contemporary society (DeVeaux, 1991: pg. 525). The historical aspects of jazz that led to the jazz – fusion of the 1960s was also inclusive of historical associations with popular culture of the time as well as the jazz culture that was well – known. The ideal of innovation, progression and the invention of new sounds was a part of the foundatio nal formula of jazz. However, the 1960s and 1970s began to move into these formulas not only as aspects of experimentation, but also moved into the ability to change the styles according to the sounds that were common during the time. This stayed in line with the jazz tradition and was able to tap into the cultural styles that were beginning to form in the contemporary society, such as rock and roll as well as pop. The concept of American jazz and the several branches which grew from this emerged during this time, specifically in light of the innovation and foundational ideologies of experimentation that were a part of jazz (Peretti, 1997: p. 35). Social Changes and Jazz Fusion Another aspect which was changing the way in which jazz was presented in society was from the cultural and social affiliations with music. During this time frame, jazz was known to be at a crossroads. There were traditions of jazz which were well – known to many; however, these were considered classics and often couldn’t be expressed in the same way. Repeating the same expressions in jazz through the traditional forms and the blues elements became one which didn’t work with the needs for jazz. At the same time, there was an emergence of cultural and social expressions that were based on diversity of thought as well as a changing ethnic identity within the culture. The traditions of music began to form within the culture as the main association of identity and were expanded on to reach specific groups who could best relate to these ideologies. The social movements were then a part of the jazz expressions and fusion that became a part of this time frame (Barkley, 2007: 6). The concept of creating a new sense of identity was one which jazz formed specifically because of social movements and the relationships which could be created. The Civil Rights Movement, aspects of free expression and the liberty to expand on various forms of ideals were the main concepts

Global Health-Improving Access to Health Care and Medication Essay

Global Health-Improving Access to Health Care and Medication - Essay Example The global access to health has been impacted significantly by social and environmental factors that yield marked differences in health status (Collins 2003, p.97). As a result, the core focus centers on understanding and intervening within the underpinning causes of health inequity. The World Health Organization has outlined a number of indicators for health access, namely: life expectancy and mortality; health service coverage; selected infectious diseases; risk factors; health expenditure; health inequities; health information systems and data availability; and, demographic and socioeconomic statistics. The inequalities in global access to health do not only manifest between countries, but also within countries and closely associate with the level of social disadvantage (Gulliford & Morgan 2003, p.3). The Case for Health Disparities Health disparities remain broadly defined as variations in disease prevalence or treatment based on aspects such as sex, race, or ethnicity, income, e ducation attainment, geographic location, or sexual orientation. Health disparities adversely impact on groups of people, who systematically encounter enhanced socio-economic impediments to health based on their racial/ethnic group, socioeconomic status, age, gender, sexual orientation, geographic location, gender identity, or other characteristics associated with discrimination or exclusion (Mullins, Blatt, Gbarayor, Yang, & Baquet 2005, p.1873). Globally, several efforts directed at highlighting and minimizing health disparities that have involved numerous agencies as they evaluate the countries’ march towards adoption of policy-driven and health-centred objectives. Despite the changes implemented over the last decades, health disparities around the world still exist, especially among the minority groups. The Journal of the American Medical Association highlights race as a critical determinant within the level of care, whereby ethnic minority groups frequently receive less intensive and lower care. Health disparities are also not pegged on race, ethnic, and cultural differences alone as such disparities remain also fuelled by the sexuality minority groups. Studies manifest that an individual’s sexual minority status may restrain access to health care. In some cases, the homosexuals, transgender groups, and bisexual population perpetually experience the diverse range of health access problems connected to their sexuality. The discrimination and minimized access to medical care, coupled with social and cultural experiences aggravate these problems (Collins 2003, p.98). In terms of gender, women in the U.S usually manifest better access to healthcare compared to men. This can be explained by the fact that women mainly have higher rates of health insurance and report enhanced likelihood to seek medical care. Although, gender and race play a critical role in explaining healthcare inequality within the U.S., socioeconomic status bears the greatest de termining factor in shaping an individual’s level of access to healthcare. Indeed, socio-economic differences manifest between racial groups and impacts on the health status of the groups (Bravemen 2006, p.167). Overall, the reasons for disparities in healthcare access are numerous, but can encompass lack of insurance coverage; lack of

Discussion Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Discussion Questions - Essay Example (Craig Dobbins). This part has to do with the organizational structure of the said company. Organizational Structure is defined as â€Å"The  framework, typically  hierarchical, within which an organization arranges its  lines  of  authority  and  communications, and  allocates  rights  and  duties.  Organizational  structure  determines the manner and extent to which  roles,  power, and  responsibilities  are delegated, controlled, and coordinated, and how  information flows  between  levels of management.† (BusinessDictionary.com, 2012). If an organization has a flexible, decentralized organizational structure then it is easier for information to flow vertically through the different hierarchies and thus it’ll be easier for information about strategic environmental factors to come to the notice of strategy makers of the organization has a flexible structure. To make sure that the strategy makers use this information appropriately, top management can implement an internal audit/control system to keep check on subordinate management levels and what they are doing. Internal controls protect the organization against internal fraud, resource wastage, increases reliability, increases security and helps evaluate performance. (Internal Audit, Kansas State University, 2003). This way there is less chance of inefficiency and mismanagement. 2. Craig Dobbins. â€Å"Strategic Planning: External Environment Scanning†. Center for Food and Agricultural Business, Purdue University. Accessed on: June 20, 2012.

Five educational technologies that will most influence teaching, Essay

Five educational technologies that will most influence teaching, students, and the classroom environment over the next ten years - Essay Example For example in 2009, the private institutions enrolled 3.7 million students and spent $ 22,514 per student while the public schools enrolled 7.7 million students and spent $12, 812. There is thus a great variation between the colleges therefore, driving the need for change to the future of higher education. Jackson also noted that there were increasing costs in education and student debts which raised much concern over the future of these institutions.2 Furthermore, these institutions are expected to produce individuals with skills that are relevant in the job market. Since most students enroll in public institutions, there is need to effect changes in those institutions to ensure efficiency and productivity. Information technology in this case, if incorporated in schools can play a great role in delivering the much needed change. The high demand for incorporation of IT in schools has been necessitated by the many challenges faced by educational institutions in a dynamic global envir onment. First, there is increased need of expanding the content of the curriculum to cope with the demands placed on education by the society. Education is expected to deliver more content due to growth of knowledge. There has also been tremendous growth in reasoning and critical thinking skills hence IT is needed. Due to increased diversity of students, the traditional methods of learning are proving to be incapable of fulfilling learner’s needs besides being expensive.3 Changes in the methods of teaching and how students learn are therefore needed and the only solution is to make IT more central to teaching and learning processes. There are various IT technologies such as use of personal learning environments, tablet computing, use of mobile devices, game-based learning, online learning, user generated learning among others. The paper will concentrate on the five educational technologies that will hold the most influence on teaching, students and the classroom environment o ver the next ten years which comprise of: learning centered design, user generated content, mobile devices, tablet computing and game-based learning. Education in the United States is based on a comprehensive system of elementary, secondary and higher education. Children below five years are enrolled in preschools after which they proceed to elementary school at age 5-7 to age 11-13. Secondary education begins at age 9-12 after which those who graduate proceed to graduate schools. The education system is decentralized hence the schools have a greater role in decision making process rather than relying on the state. It also means that the service providers have to ensure high quality education as they are held accountable by the parents as well the government.4 The U.S education system is dependent on the economic resources hence in case of economic downturns the impact on education is great leading to low enrolment levels and increased drop out rates. This is especially so for racia l groups and the minority groups who have less chances of enrolling in secondary schools.5 The secondary schools are divided into parochial, private, and public schools. The parochial schools are owned and funded by religious entities while private schools are owned and funded by private individuals or organizations. The public schools on the other hand, are funded by

Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Finance - Essay Example Analysis of Short-run IPO under Pricing Phenomenon in Australian Stock Market The phenomenon of under pricing of Initial Public Offer (IPO) is often considered as an anomaly that is mostly visible in the primary markets throughout the world. But the degree or extent of under pricing varies from country to country and further from sector to sector. Under pricing is defined as the phenomenon when the offer price of a new issue is lower than the price of first trade. It is calculated as difference close price on the date of listing and offer price of issue expressed as percentage of offer price of issue. In the US market, the short run under-pricing is a well known phenomenon but in order to investigate whether this phenomenon exists in the Australian stock markets or not the researcher will have to measure the short-run IPO performance by analysing the returns of IPOs that were listed between chosen time frame and remained listed up to at least 2 year holding period (Rhee, 2002, pp.1-7 ). By carefully analysing the IPO data of Australian stock markets since 2011, with special reference to the issue price of IPO shares and the last trading close price of the IPO stocks at the end of first day of trading after listing, it can be said that short-run IPO under-pricing phenomenon does exist in Australian stock markets. This is because the issue price of the IPO stocks were significantly underpriced compared to last trading price at the end of first of trading after IPO and listing. A careful analysis of IPO under pricing reveals that when the offer price of new issue is lower than first trading price after listing, then the stock is considered to be under priced. Now, a stock should generally be under priced when there is lack of demand in the market and that the phenomenon should be temporary since under pricing will eventually motivate investors to hold shares which will increase the demand for the shares and thus will consequently increase the price of shares (Bansa l and Khanna, 2012, pp.107-108). But, in case of IPO under pricing in US market or Australian stock markets, it is often believed that IPOs are under priced on concerns of uncertainty and liquidity regarding the level of probable trade in the market after listing. Hence, in general any stock which is expected to be less liquid and less predictable will be under priced to greater extent for two primary reasons. The first reason is to compensate the investor for taking risk of holding the stock and secondly increase the liquidity of trading. The general explanation for such phenomenon is that since the issuing entity tends to have more knowledge regarding the stocks and their values compared to investors, the company must under price the stocks to motivate investors to participate in the IPO (Ritter, 1995, pp.1-4). When the firms issue their shares to public through IPO they incur both direct and direct costs. The direct cost includes underwriting fee, registration, legal, and audit f ees. The indirect cost includes cost associated with under pricing. In the calculation of under pricing, the first day’s closing price represents investor expectation regarding what they are willing to pay for holding the firm’

Syria Revolution Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Syria Revolution - Research Paper Example Being a democratic republic under the power of President Bashar Al- Asad together with his advisors, members of the ruling party, his ministers, the president made major decisions and was also in charge of the ruling party. Together with his party leaders, the president governs all the three branches of government , he was given the mandate to rule the country for his second term of seven years in a â€Å"yes or no† referendum that was unfair in the eyes of human rights advocates both locally and internationally. Military was deployed to bring to an end the uprising hence using firearms on the demonstrators across the country, this lead to an armed rebellion which comprised of volunteer civilian and defected solders from the government. According to the report of the United Nations released on September 2013, more than one hundred and twenty thousand died in the process while thousands of protestors are rotting in jail and there are reports of terror and torture in the state p risons. The Syrian government is given reinforcement by Russia and Iran, while Saudi Arabia and Qatar supports the rebels with weapon. The reason for the uprising started when President Bashar al-Assad came to power in the year two thousand immediately after his father Hafez dead, who had lead Syria since 1970. This dictatorial system of government had only one party system which left few means for political differences, the nation had no peaceful transfer of power since 1950 and for change to take place only a military coup or an uprising was to take place, because the mercies of the country felt oppressed, humiliated and deprived their right to have the leader of their own choice. The Ba’ath party was regarded as the initiator of the â€Å"Arab socialism† that tried to merge the state leading economy with Pan –Arab nationalism; the ideology of the Baathist was reduced to nothing, this was facilitated by damaging its reputation by making its economy to became w eak and losing the wars against Israel. The reforms of the vestige socialism made the doors wide open to personal venture enhancing and broadening consumerism along with the upper and middle classes and neglecting those favored with links to the Assad government, by this uneven economy was created which latter triggered the uprising as the cost of living got high and job became scarce (Anon 1). Persistent drought devastated farming in the north eastern Syrian community which totally relied on farming lead thousand of Syrian people to suffer hunger, due to lack of stability in the Syrian government more than a million suffered since 2008, by this many individuals from the hit area went to urban in search of their daily bread, lack of employment in town led them to become frustrated ending up in mushrooming of slums. This population was angered by lack of help from their government and this fueled anger and hate of their mother country hence being eager to over throw their government. Rapidly growing population lead to the emergence of young and energetic people in the nation, due to lack of employment this created a demographic time bomb in the country which was to explode anytime. Lack of productive public sector as

How Technology in the Workplace has shaped Outsourcing and Essay - 1

How Technology in the Workplace has shaped Outsourcing and Globalization - Essay Example ivilization or Christianity, but the real objective, according to Thurow & Lessard (2002), was to exploit the untapped resources of poorer countries so the richer countries can enhance their wealth. Probably because of this striking resemblance between colonization and latter-day globalization, analysts saw globalization coming as early as the mid-19th century. One of them was Karl Marx, who perforce warned of dire consequences: â€Å"It will make the poor poorer because it will bring down wages, increase class and country inequality, create monopolistic companies with global dimension and create economic collapse in places characterized by social, economic and political instability (Mahdavi, 2004).† Marx in his Das Kapital even expressed fear of â€Å"religious terrorism† as a possible reaction to the concept of globalization. These are exactly the same social concerns that many are raising to intersperse with the chorus of praise for the otherwise welcome benefits of technology as represented in today’s world by computers and the Internet. The questions that this paper seeks to satisfy are: Has any of Marx’s predictions come true? While technology is generally viewed as a good thing, are there any downsides to the resulting globalization that fostered business outsourcing? The information revolution as we know it traces its roots to the family computer that made video games possible. Then in mid-1970s, the electronic principle that made the family computer work was successfully expanded through a gadget that came to be known as personal computer. The personal computer with its subsequently developed Internet capability was soon hailed as a device that revolutionized information dissemination in a much bigger way than the telephone. Whereas the telephone established connection between only 2 or 3 nodes, the Internet allows simultaneous exchange of information in digital form among a limitless number of nodes. The economic impact of the

The Home Depot in Chinese Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Home Depot in Chinese Market - Essay Example With this, home improvement comes up and there are numerous stores and companies that supply products and advice on how to make one’s home better by installing additional hardware and items to it. This is widely appreciated throughout the world, but in some cases it is only done by contractors based on the economic status of the people involved. One such company that provides these supplies Home Depot which operates across North America. However, attempts to venture into Asia failed miserably when the company attempted to establish itself in China by providing supplies for home improvement through do it yourself antics. Different reasons have cited for this failure, but there is no full consensus on the key causes of the failure of such a large company that was unable to replicate the success of its north American operations in China. This makes it necessary to look into the causes of this failure and how they served to drive the company out of China. Background The history of Home Depot spans over three decades since its inception in the year 1976 in Atlanta Georgia, where the initial Home Depot store was inaugurated in the same year. The main concept of opening the store was to provide comprehensive supplies to all clients who sought after home improvement equipment and provisions in the name of â€Å"do it yourself†. This made the company into a di it yourself supply chain across the state of Georgia after the establishment of additional stores. Besides this, there was also the provision of giving advice on home improvement to their clients and other customers purchasing supplies from their stores. With this home improvement target market focussing on do it yourself population types, it supplied partial and full components and products such as building, plumbing and electrical supplies. This is in addition to having a large selection of hand and power tools catering to both customers who preferred the traditional feel of hand tools over electri city powered tools (Miller 2). These also included an assortment of brands for maximum variety that even went beyond convention in regard to stocking gardening tools, where home improvement did not just imply the house or its aspects but the home in totality. The expansion of the store over the years has featured its listing in the New York Stock Exchange and even opening stores to hit a 100 in the year 1989 across all of the United States. Further expansion has gone to an extent of having over 2200 stores across the North American continent ranging from USA, Canada, Puerto Rico, Guam, Mexico and the US Virgin Island, and with these, expansion still continues (â€Å"Home Improvement Industry Profile†). With the success of the company across the continent, there were talks of further expansion into the world most populous nation, China. Reasons for the expansion into China was due to the large population that China has and the saturated retail market across the US, which saw t he company seek to expand into China. Another factor in consideration was the high amount of competition in China, where economic indicators were supportive of Home Depots expansion into China due to rapid growth of the Chinese economy especially following reforms after Mao’s reign as the Chinese communist leader. As such, the housing market had a lot of potential at the time of the feasibility for Home Depot to expand into China in that most of the houses in China were hardly complete or rather finished in that they needed further addition of features so that clients or home owners are charged with

2008 Summer Olympics Essay Example for Free

2008 Summer Olympics Essay Published by  © 2008 by Routledge, Taylor Francis Group. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilm, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Routledge, Taylor Francis Group, 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016. IM-1826 CONTENTS Introduction Chapter 1. Introduction to Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Chapter 2. The Historical Development of Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 3. The Economics of Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Chapter 4. Audiences for Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 5. The Role of Media in Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 6. Sociocultural Perspectives on Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 7. Practicum on Sportscasting Chapter 8. The Future of Sportscasters/Sportscasting Suggestions for Teaching Sportscasting Syllabus Critical Dates Student Profile Invitation for Sportscaster Speaker 5 7 13 19 25 33 41 55 61 65 67 69 73 75 Introduction Conceived as a supplement to Sportscasters/Sportscasting: Principles and Practices, this collection of exercises adds to the pedagogical mix. Following the outline of a broad approach to understanding the topic—which includes the history, economics, audience, media, sociology, practicality, and future concerns of sports and sportscasting, it has this general outline: Chapter l. Introduction to the study of sportscasters and sportscasting Chapter 2. The historical development of sports and sportscasting Chapter 3. The economics of sports, sportscasters, and sportscasting (sports advertisers and advertising, sport tourism, sports marketing and management, the sports-media complex, sportscasters’ earnings, and sports sponsorship) Chapter 4. Audiences for sports and sportscasting (U. S. audiences, international audiences, and special events) Chapter 5. The role of the media in sports and sportscasting (print media, broadcasting, and beyond, sportscasters—the â€Å"Jockocracy† issue, sportscasters as celebrities, and sportscaster profiles) Chapter 6. Sociocultural perspectives on sports and sportscasting (pervasiveness and salience of sports, role modeling/heroes, and issues—racial and gender consideration) Chapter 7. Practicum on sportscasting Chapter 8. Future concerns and considerations about sports and sportscasting Designed for teachers and students, as well as anyone interested in the topic, the Exercises in Sportscasting includes a range of ap5 6 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING proaches. The idea here is that participants in this process will want to learn as much as they can about the subject. As you will see, each chapter offers several ways to enhance the learning process. Some chapters encourage discussions of topics with family and friends and/or in the classroom, and most are meant to get you both thinking and talking about sportscasting-related issues. There also are a number of bibliographic lists, encouraging further research on various topics, along with an approach to reporting on your reading that encourages critical thinking. Exercise 1. 4 is a â€Å"Fill in the blanks,† with the answers on the next page, as is Exercise 2. 3 â€Å"Sport history firsts,† and the essays in Exercise 2. 4 have suggested inclusions for answers. If you are interested in doing survey scholarship, there are two examples here: Exercise 4. 5 offers directions on how to get information on audiences for the Olympic Games, along with a sample and coding forms, and Exercise 5. 8 gives you a good background for interviewing sportscasters. In the hope that you use soft drinks, as suggested, you should enjoy Exercise 5. 6, â€Å"The Brent Musburger Drinking Game†Ã¢â‚¬â€ another way to monitor sportscasterspeak. There actually are a number of fun exercises here, as you will see. In terms of the practicum, you are asked to consider the field of sports journalism, examine sports cliches, construct a resume, analyze your voice, and actually practice sportscasting. As in anything else, the more you are willing to try these various activities, the more it will help you in the long run. This is, after all, only your beginning. After the exercises is a separate section focusing on the way this course has been taught in the past. It includes the following: 1. Syllabus 2. Critical Dates 3. Student profile 4. A suggested invitation for a sportscaster speaker Designed for teachers, this section is suggestive only, and is open to input—as is, in fact, this whole project. Your responses are encouraged, and I wish you well in your analysis of and/or career in sportscasting. Chapter 1 Introduction to Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Exercise 1. 1: Your Definition/Description of Sportscasting We all have our own experiences with the subject of sportscasting. Tell about yours, including your interest in the topic. At some point, give your own definition and/or description of sportscasting. In addition, what has been your personal experience with sportscasting and sportscasters? Have you met any sportscasters personally? Who are your favorites? Who are your least favorite(s)? Think about why, and share your thoughts. Exercise 1. 2: Globalization of Sports (book review) From the bibliography that follows, choose a book and critique it, including the following information: 1. The book: Full name of the title, author(s) name, when and where published and by whom, number of pages and illustrations. 2. Author(s): Who she or he is—profession, background, experience, and other publications. 3. Frame of reference: The writer’s point of view, or bias. Do you think she or he is qualified to write about this subject? Is the book based on personal experience? 4. Thesis: What is the main point here? Why do you think this book was written? Read the preface and the book jacket, if applicable. Give a brief description of the book in terms of its thesis, and give your opinion on how well it is supported. 7 8 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING 5. Evidence: What kinds of arguments does the author use, and how successfully? Do you think the facts are valid? Are the conclusions under- or overstated, and how do they stand up? 6. Contribution to knowledge: What does this book add to both your education and that of others who might read it? Who might like to read this book? 7. Your evaluation of the book: Was it well written? Well organized? Would you read more books by this author? 8. Overall personal reaction: Was reading this book and writing this book report a worthwhile experience for you? Did you discuss this book with anyone? Bibliography on Globalization Allison, Lincoln (2006). The global politics of sport: The role of global institutions in sport. Oxford, UK: Routledge. Amis, John (2005). Global sport sponsorship. Oxford, UK: Berg Publishing. Andrews, David L. (2006). Sport-commerce-culture: Essays on sport in late capitalist America. New York: Peter Lang. Baimer, A. 2001. Sport, nationalism, and globalization: European and North American perspectives. Albany, NY: SUNY. Chandler, Joan M. 1988. Television and national sport: The U. S. and Britain. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Cronin, Mike and David Mayall (Eds. ) (1998). Sporting nationalisms. Oxford, UK: Taylor Francis, Inc. Eitzen, D. Stanley (Ed. ) (2004). Sport in contemporary society: An anthology, 7th ed. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers. Foer, Franklin. 2004. How soccer explains the world: An unlikely theory of globalization. New York: Harper Perennial. Gems, Gerald R. (2006). The athletic crusade: Sport and American cultural imperialism. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Houlihan, Barrie. 1994. Sport and international politics. NY: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Ingham, Alan G. and John W. Loy (eds. ) 1993. Sport in social development: Traditions, transitions, and transformations. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Maguire, Joseph. 1999. Global sport: Identities, societies, civilizations. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Majumdar, Boria and Fan Hong (Eds. ) (2006). Modern sport the global obsession. Oxford, UK: Routledge. Miller, Toby, Geoffrey Lawrence, Jim McKay, and David Rowe (2001). Globalization and sport: Playing the world. London: Sage. Roche, Maurice (2001). Mega-events and modernity: Olympics and expos in the growth of global culture. London: Routledge. Instructor’s Manual 9 Sandvoss, Cornel. 2003. A game of two halves: Football fandom, television and globalisation. London: Routledge. Szymanski, Stefan and Andrew Zimbalist. (2005). National pastime: How Americans play baseball and the rest of the world plays soccer. Brookings Institution Press. Tomlinson, Alan and Christopher Young (Eds. ) (2006). National identity and global sports events. Albany: State University of New York Press. Van Bottenburg, Maarten and Beverley Jackson (2001). Global games. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Wenner, Lawrence A. (Ed. ) (1998). MediaSport. New York: Routledge. Westerbeek, Han and Aaron Smith (2003). Sport business in the global marketplace. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Whannel, Garry (1992). Fields in vision: TV sport and cultural transformation. London: Routledge. Wilson, John. 1994. Playing by the rules: Sport, society, and the state. Detroit, MI: Wayne State UP. Exercise 1. 3: Sportscasting Firsts Lou Schwartz has put together a list of â€Å"Sportscasting Firsts, 1920Present,† available at http://www. americansporscasteronline. com, from American Sportscasters Online. Choose one of these events to research further, and feel free to add more to the list. Sept. 6, 1920 First Radio Broadcast of a Prizefight -Jack Dempsey versus Billy Miske WWJ Nov. 25, 1920 First Radio Play-by-Play Broadcast of a Collegiate Football Game Texas University versus Mechanical College of Texas WTAW Aug. 5, 1921 First Radio Broadcast of a Baseball Game-Pittsburgh Pirates versus Philadelphia Phillies Harold Arlin on KDKA Aug. 6, 1921 First Radio Broadcast of a Tennis Match Australia versus Great Britian, Davis Cup Harold Arlin on KDKA Oct. 5, 1921 First Radio Broadcast of a World Series- New York Yankees versus New York Giants Sandy Hunt and Tommy Cowan on WJZ Oct. 7, 1922 First Radio Chain Broadcast- WJZ and WGY transmitted a World Series game from the field Grantland Rice and Graham McNamee 10 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING Nov. 24, 1923 First Radio Broadcast of the Annual Army Navy football game Graham McNamee Jan. 1, 1927 First Coast-to-Coast Radio Program Univ. of Alabama versus Stanford originating from Pasadena, California, broadcast from the Rose Bowl NBC network May 17, 1939 First Televised Sports Event Columbia versus Princeton baseball Bill Stern on NBC Aug. 26, 1939 First Television Broadcast of a Pro Baseball Game Cincinnati Reds versus Brooklyn Dodgers Red Barber on W2XBS Oct. 22, 1939 First Television Broadcast of a Pro Football Game-Brooklyn Dodgers versus Philadelphia Eagles W2XBS Feb. 25, 1940 First Television Broadcast of a Hockey GameNew York Rangers versus Montreal Canadiens -W2XBS Feb. 28, 1940 First Televsion Broadcast of a Basketball Game Fordham versus U. of Pittsburgh W2XBS Sept. 30, 1947 First Televised World Series-New York Yankees versus Brooklyn Dodgers aired on three stations: WABD, WCBS, WNBT -Bob Edge, Bob Stanton and Bill Slater Oct. 3, 1951 First Coast-to-Coast Television Broadcast of a Baseball Game-NY Giants versus Brooklyn Dodgers, Game 3 of NL playoffs. Giants win on Bobby Thomson’s homerun known as the â€Å"Shot Heard ’Round the World. † Aug. 26, 1955 First Color Television broadcast Davis Cup match between Australia and the U. S. NBC July 23, 1962 First Satellite Telecast via Telstar Communications included portion of Chicago Cubs versus Philadelphia Phillies from Wrigley Field Jack Brickhouse Jan. 15, 1967 First Television Broadcast of a Football Championship- Green Bay Packers versus Kansas City Chiefs Jack Buck Nov. 8, 1972 First Sports Telecast by HBO New York Rangers versus Vancouver Canucks from Madison Square Garden reaches HBO’s 365 subscribers in Wilkes Barre, Pa. Marty Glickman Instructor’s Manual 11 Aug. 16, 1976 First Pro Football Game Outside the United States- St. Louis Cardinals versus San Diego Chargers in Japan- Jack Buck Aug. 3, 1993 First Woman to do Television Play-by-Play of a Baseball Game -Colorado Rockies versus Cincinnati Reds Gayle Gardner on KNGN-TV in Denver Exercise 1. 4: Fill in the Blanks 1. The evolution of sportscasting has gone from sports reporting for information to in terms of its profitability. 2. Sportscasting is a $ industry. 3. Television executives and advertisers are primarily interested in sportscasters who can . 4. Super Bowl hype helps draw audiences of (number) viewers with advertising costing $ per minute.at ABC is credited with helping that network become 5. known for its sports, introducing shows like Wide World of Sports in 1967 and Monday Night Football in 1970. 6. Women sportscasters, although few in number, include: , , and . 7. According to Red Barber, was the first genuine pioneer in radio sports announcing. 8. In the 1960s, the annual number of network hours of sports programming was 787; in the 1970s, 1,340; and now it is . in advertising for 9. The major networks sell about $ sports. 10. Leading sportscasters currently earn salaries of -figure incomes. 11. Sporting events created for television, such as celebrity tennis or billiards, The Skins Games, battles of network â€Å"superstars,† and shows like them are called . 12. ABC paid $ for rights to the 1984 Los Angeles Olymfor the 1988 Calgary Olympics, and NBC paid pics, $ $ for the 2006 Torino Olympics and 2008 Beijing Olympics. 13. Americans spend about % of our gross national product (GNP) on sports. 12 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING 14. Sports marketing statistics show corporate sponsorship costs of $ for endorsements from sports figures, and about on event sponsorship and participation. $ 15. My personal favorite sportscaster is: . Answers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Infotainment Multibillion dollar industry Draw and sustain audiences 140+ million viewers, with advertising costing $2 million per thirty seconds Roone Arledge Mary Carillo, Gayle Gardner, Robin Roberts, Lesley Visser, etc. Major J. Andrew White 24/7 ABC $1. 33 billion, CBS $1. 43 billion, NBC $472 million, ESPN $1. 16 billion and ESPN2 $219 million, Fox $1. 18 billion, and TNT $221 million. Seven â€Å"Trashsports† ABC—$225 million 1984; $309 million 1988; NBC—$1. 5 billion for 2006 and 2008 One (1) percent $900 million for endorsements, $7. 7 billion for sponsorships (students’ choice) Chapter 2 The Historical Development of Sports and Sportscasting Exercise 2. 1: Oral Histories on Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Probably the best way for you to understand and appreciate the history of sports and sportscasting is by talking to people who have experience with the past. Let me suggest that you conduct interviews with two persons—preferably one male and one female, preferably separately, preferably both born before or during World War II about their early memories with sports, sportscasters, and sportscasting. Use your own knowledge about the history, economics, politics, content trends, and sociocultural implications of radio and television in your interviews. Prompt your interviewees to remember some of their favorite early programs, performers, even advertisers. Write up a summary of your findings, including detailed descriptions on when and where the interviews were performed, how long they lasted, whether you tape-recorded responses and/or wrote them down, whether or not those responses are reported verbatim, and overall how you felt about the survey procedure. Also, provide detailed descriptions about the persons you interviewed, especially demographically. This method has proven to be a fascinating way to learn history, and old-timers really enjoy the process. Be sure to thank them for sharing their memories! Exercise 2. 2: Hype in Sports History Often, we might wonder about what is hyped in sports history, and what might be ignored. As a sports scholar, you might consider the 13 14 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING following approach to sports media criticism of television and/or film: 1. Who are the actors in this episode or series, and what roles do they play? 2. Who made the program or movie: production company, producer, director, writer, director of cinematography, and so on? Have I seen other works by these people? Is it pertinent to know and mention them? 3. Do I like this episode or movie? Why? Why not? 4. Have I been fair with this episode or movie after only one viewing, or should I see it a second time to see what I might have missed? 5. What biases might I have toward the episode or movie’s star(s), director, and/or subject matter? 6. Have I been as objective as possible? Have I used examples to support my views? Have I been prejudiced by my attitude toward the episode or movie’s theme or plot? Have I described it accurately? Exercise 2. 3: Sports History Firsts Fill in the blanks. 1. The first successful sports broadcast in the United States: 2. In baseball, this broadcast took place during its 53rd season: . 3. Describe the first World Series sportscast: ________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 4. Jack Graney, the first ex-athlete to occupy the broadcast booth, became known as: __________________________________. 5. The first Olympic Games broadcast for the American public were: ____________________________________________. 6. Davis Cup, the first tennis match, had reportage on this date: _________________________________________________. 7. The first broadcast of a college football game was: __________. 8. Radio covered the first boxing match between whom: _______. Instructor’s Manual 15 9. The first live sporting event on television was: _____________. 10. Regarding the print media, what was the first sport magazine to debut in the 1820s: __________________________________. 11. The newspaper that had the first distinct sports section: ______. 12. Name the first daily newspaper totally devoted to sports, with regional sections: ___________________________________. 13. HBO’s first regional sportscast: ________________________. 14. ESPN, the first twenty-four-hour all-sports cable network, began: _____________________________________________. 15. Ted Turner’s Goodwill Games first began: ________________. Answers 1. April 11, 1921, when the Pittsburgh Post’s sports editor, Florent Gibson, did the play-by-play over station KDKA, describing the no-decision fight between Johnny Ray and Johnny Dundee at Pittsburgh’s Motor Square Garden. 2. August 5, 1921, broadcast by Harold Arlin—Pittsburgh Pirates defeating the Philadelphia Phillies 8-5. 3. Thomas Cowan, sitting in a New York studio, recreated for the radio audience over stations WJZ and WBZ the 1921 World Series on October 5, as the New York Giants defeated the New York Yankees 5-3. Grantland Rice did the play-by-play. 4. â€Å"The Voice of the Indians,† 1932. 5. 1932 radio reports from Lake Placid for the winter games, Los Angeles for the summer games. Ted Husing provided summaries on WABC in New York. 6. August, 1921 over KDKA. 7. November 5, 1921, with Harold Arlin of KDKA covering Pittsburgh versus West Virginia; he yelled so hard at one touchdown that he knocked the station off the air. 8. Over WJY in 1921, the world heavyweight championship prize fight between Jack Dempsey and George Carpentier of France. 9. The second game of a baseball double-header between Columbia and Princeton, covered by Bill Stern out of New York’s Baker Field on May 17, 1939. 10. William Trotter Porter’s Spirit of the Times. 11. William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal, 1895. 12. Frank DeFord’s The National, which debuted January, 1990. 16 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING 13. 1972 hockey game between the New York Rangers and Vancouver Canucks. 14. September, 1979. 15. 1986. Exercise 2. 4: Essays 1. Describe the broad trends that best depict qualifications of what makes and have made the best sportscasters over the years. 2. Trace the developments from sports journalism to sports broadcasting. 3. Discuss sportscasters themselves: as sponsors, celebrities/stars, as fans’ favorites, as former athletes (â€Å"jockocracy†), and as newscasters. 4. Outline some of the distinctions of the symbiosis between media and sport. Suggested Essay Answers 1. In the early days, voice was the most distinguishing characteristic. Review the Waldo Abbott 1941 quotation about phraseology, diction, rules, and regulations, and review some early sports journalists. The second phase of sportscasting concentrated more on knowledge of sport, and began the practice known as â€Å"jockocracy. † Currently, it appears that knowledge of television is what is critical. Consider Marty Glickman’s suggestion that succinctness, self-discipline and awareness of the action are the criteria. Still today the demographics of sportscasters remain pretty much within the purview of white males, aged thirty to fifty. It is found that local/regional sportscasters differ greatly from national network ones, the former being more involved personally with the teams. 2. Bruce Garrison shows how sports reporting is becoming more professional—list some examples. We are thought to be in the â€Å"age of realism†Ã¢â‚¬â€what Karmer (1987) calls the double whammy of electronic media and tabloid journalism, such that the rules are being rewritten. Print was revolutionized by the introduction of USA Today— especially graphics, statistics, and wide-ranging sports coverage. But so far no newspaper has caught on; even though The National was well done, sports fans today mostly depend on television and the Internet for their coverage. Television itself has revolutionized sports Instructor’s Manual 17 coverage, from ABC in the 1970s to the introduction of ESPN and other 24/7 sports channels. We have moved from game stories centered on quotes from players and coaches and postgame trips to the locker room to instant messaging and â€Å"reality† monitoring. It becomes sobering to realize how we are moving from being told about sports to choosing what stories we want to follow; in other words, we are increasingly becoming more active in the process. 3. Cite some examples of sportscasters as sponsors, and then consider the issue of how some of them become bigger than the events they are covering. Who are â€Å"homers†? Who are former athletes? Who are newsmakers? Include considerations of race, gender, homophobia, and the like. 4. What is real relative to sportscasting? What differences are there between how reportage is received from print media, radio or television, the Internet, iPods, and other technologies? Discuss various production techniques, such as slo-mo replays, time-lapse shots, telestrators, wireless microphones, cameras attached to items like pucks, and how they might determine how a story is delivered. And consider how editing and videotaping have revolutionized not only what we see but also when and how we see it—remote controls, Tivos, and general zipping and zapping of ads and programs. The potential for great sports viewing, and for learning about new sports and other countries’ sports, is outstanding—but will we settle for the same old/same old? Will we ask more from our sports, and from our sportscasters? Chapter 3 The Economics of Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Exercise 3. 1: Sports Tourism As one of the fastest-growing niche markets in the more than $500 billion tourism industry, sports tourism encourages us to participate directly, such as on ski trips, at golf or tennis camps, on theme cruises, or as spectators for events such as the Olympic Games, Super Bowl, World Cup, and the like. Tell about your own experience in sports tourism. You might want to refer to some of these books: Brabazon, Tara (2006). Playing on the periphery: Sport, identity and memory. London: Routledge. Gibson, Heather (2006). Sport tourism. New York: Routledge. Higham, James (2004). Sport tourism destinations: Issues, opportunities and analysis. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Hinch, Thomas and James E. S. Higham (2004). Sport tourism development. Clevedon, UK: Channel View Books. Hudson, Simon (Ed. ) (2002). Sport and adventure tourism. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press. Ritchie, Brent W. and Daryl Adair (Eds. ) (2004). Sport tourism: Interrelationships, impacts and issues. Oxon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Robinson, Tom (2004). Sports tourism: An introduction. Boston, MA: Thomson Learning. Robinson, Tom, Sean Gammon, and Ian Jones (2003). Sports tourism: An Introduction. London: Continuum. Rowe, David and Geoffrey Laurence (Eds. ) (2000). Tourism, leisure, sport, and critical perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Ryan, Chris (2003). Recreational tourism: Demand and impacts. Celevedon, UK: Channel View Publications. 19 20 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING Scarrott, Martin (Ed. ) (1999). Sport, leisure and tourism information sources: A guide for researchers. Butterworth-Heinemann. Standeven, Joy and Paul DeKnop (1999). Sport tourism. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Turco, Douglas Michele, Roger S. Riley, Kamilla Swart (2002). Sport tourism. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Van Der Wagen, Lynn (2002). Event management: For tourism, cultural, business, and sporting events. Prentice-Hall. Weed, Mike and Chris Bull (2003). Sports tourism: Participants, policy and providers. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Exercise 3. 2: The Economics of Sports (book review) From the bibliography, choose a book and critique it, including the following information: 1. The book: full name of the title, author(s) name, when and where published and by whom, number of pages and illustrations. 2. Author(s): who she or he is—profession, background, experience, and other publications. 3. Frame of reference: the writer’s point of view, or bias. Do you think he or she is qualified to write about this subject? Is the book based on personal experience? 4. Thesis: what is the main point here? Why do you think this book was written? Read the preface and the book jacket, if applicable. Give a brief description of the book in terms of its thesis, and give your opinion on how well it is supported. 5. Evidence: what kinds of arguments does the author use, and how successfully? Do you think the facts are valid? Are the conclusions under- or overstated, and how do they stand up? 6. Contribution to knowledge: what does this book add to both your education and that of others who might read it? Who might like to read this book? 7. Your evaluation of the book: was it well written? Well organized? Would you read more books by this author? 8. Overall personal reaction: was reading this book and writing this book report a worthwhile experience for you? Did you discuss this book with anyone? Instructor’s Manual. Bibliography on General Sports Economics 21 Andrews, David L. (Ed. ) (2001). Michael Jordon, Inc: Corporate sport, media culture, and late modern America. Albany: State University of NY Press. Andrews, David L. (2006). Sport-commerce-culture: Essays on sport in late capitalist America. New York: Peter Lang. Aris, Stephen (1990). Sportsbiz: Inside the sports business. London: Hutchinson. Fizel, John, Elizabeth Gustafson, and Lawrence Hadley (Eds. ) (1999). Sports economics: Current research. Westport, CT: Praeger. Goff, Brian L. and Robert D. Tollison (eds. ) (1990). Sportometrics. College Station, TX: Texas AM UP. Gorman, Jerry and Kirk Calhoun (1994). The name of the game: The business of sports. NY: John Wiley Sons. Graham, Peter J. (Ed. ) (1994). Sport business: Operational and theoretical aspects. Madison, WI: WCB Brown Benchmark. Hofmann, Dale and Martin J. Greenberg (1989). Sports$biz: An irreverent look at Big Business in pro sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Klatell, David A. and Norman Marcus (1988). Sports for sale: Television, money, and the fans. New York: Oxford. Rosentraub, Mark S. (1997). Major League losers: The real cost of sports and who’s paying for it. New York: Basic Books. Sheehan, Richard G.( 1996). Keeping score: The economics of Big-Time sports. South Bend, IN: Diamond Communication. Staudohar, Paul D. and James A. Mangan (Eds. ) (1991). The business of professional sports. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Walsh, Adrian (2006). Ethics, money sport: This sporting mammon. New York: Routledge. Weiss, Ann E. (1993). Money games: The business of sports. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Bibliography on Law/Legal Issues Berry, Robert C. and Glenn M. Wong (1993). Law and business of the sports industries: Common issues in amateur and professional sports. Westport, CT: Praeger. Champion, Walter T. , Jr.(1993). Sports law in a nutshell. St. Paul, MN: West Pub. Cotton, Doyice J. and T. Jesse Wilde (1997). Sport law for sport managers. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. Cozzillio, Michael J. and Mark S. Levinstein (1997). Sports law: Cases and materials. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. Dougherty, Neil J. (1994). Sport, physical activity, and the law. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Fotiades, John M. (1989). You’re the judge: How to understand sports, torts courts. Worcester, MA: Edgeworth and North Books. 22 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING Greenberg, Martin J. (1993). Sports law practice. Charlottesville, VA: Michie Co. Greenfield, Steve and Guy Osborn (Eds. ) (2000). Law and sport in Contemporary society. London: Frank Cass. Hladczuk, John (Comp. ) (1991). Sports law and legislation: An annotated bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press. Jarvis, Robert M. and Phyllis Coleman (1999). Sports law: Cases and materials. St. Paul, MN: West Group. Jones, Michael E. (1999). Sports law. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Lowe, Stephen R. (1995). The kid on the sandlot: Congress and professional sports, 1910-1922. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. O’Leary, John (Ed. ) (2001). Drugs and doping in sport: Socio-legal perspectives. London: Cavendish. Quirk, Charles (Ed. ) (1996). Sports and the law: Major legal cases. New York: Garland. Shropshire, Kenneth L. (1990). Agents of opportunity: Sports agents and corruption in collegiate sports. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Tokarz, Karen (1986). Women, sports, and the law: A comprehensive research guide to sex discrimination in sports. Buffalo, NY: W. S. Hein. Weiler, Paul C. (2000). Leveling the playing field: How the law can makes Sports better for the fans. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP. Weiler, Paul C. and Gary R. Roberts (1993). Cases, materials and problems on sports and the law. St. Paul, MN: West Pub. Wong, Glenn M. (1994). Essentials of amateur sports law. Westport, CT: Praeger. Wong, Glenn M. and T. Jesse Wilde (1994). The sport lawyer’s guide to legal periodicals: An annotated bibliography. Buffalo, NY: W. S. Hein. Yasser, Raymond L. (1985) Torts and sports: Legal liability in professional and amateur athletics. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Yasser, Ray, James R. McCurdy, and C. Peter Goplerud (1990). Sports law: Cases and materials. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson. Bibliography on Sports Marketing/Management Brooks, Christine M. (1994). Sports marketing: Competitive business strategies for sports. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cuneen, Jacquelyn and M. Joy Sidwell (1994). Sport management Field experiences. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. DeSensi, Joy T. and Danny Rosenberg (1996). Ethics in sports management. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Graham, Stedman, Joe Jeff Goldblatt, and Lisa Delphy Neirotti (2001). The ultimate guide to sports marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill. Howard, Dennis R. and John L. Crampton (1995). Financing sport. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Jones, Ian (2003). Research methods for sports studies. New York: Routledge. Instructor’s Manual 23 Masteralexis, Lida Pike, Carol A. Barr, and Mary A. Hums (Eds. ) (2004). Principles and practices of sports management. 2nd ed. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. McDonald, Mark A. and George R. Milne (1999). Cases in sports marketing. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. Miller, Lorik (1997). Sport business management. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. Milne, George R. and Mark A. McDonald (1999). Sports management: Managing the exchange process. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. Mullin, Bernard J. , Stephen Hardy, and William A. Sutton (1993). Sport marketing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Definition Of Parental Involvement

Definition Of Parental Involvement 2.0 Introduction Research is made in order to inform people with new knowledge or discovery. Jancowicz (2000:159) knowledge does not exist in a vacuum and you work only has value in relation to other peoples work. Thus for a research to be credible, it should be supported by other works that have spoken about the same topic; therein the importance of the literature review which Hart (1998) defines as: The selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfill certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being proposed. The ability to carry out a literature review is an important skill for any researcher. It will provide the latter with a context in which to place the research with respect to what has already been researched about the topic whereby the researcher will get an up to date account and discussion of the research findings about the particular topic. 2.1 Parental Involvement 2.1.1 Definition of Parental Involvement Parental involvement is believed to be an important strategy in the advancement of the quality of education. Parental involvement as such may be defined in different ways. According to Althoff (2010) parental involvement refers to the amount of participation a parent has when it comes to schooling and her childs life. (Abdullah, Seedee, Alzaidiyeen, Al-Shabatat, Alzeydeen, Al-Awabdeh, 2011) define parental involvement as the activities occurring between a parent and a child or between a parent and teachers at school that may contribute to the childs educational outcomes and development. NCLB (2001) described parental involvement as regular participation of parents, a two-way process, and meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school activities including: Assisting their childs learning; (b) Being actively involved in their childs education at school; (c) Serving as full partners in their childs education and being included, as appropriate, in decision-making and on advisory committees to assist in the education of their child; and (d) The carrying out of other activities such as those described in section 1118 of the ESEA Section 9101(32). Liontos (1992) mentions recent beliefs about parents and families that schools should consider when involving themselves in the education to their children: 1) All families have strengths, 2) parents can learn new techniques, 3) parents have important perspectives about their children, 4) most parents really care about their children, 5) cultural differences are both valid and valuable, and 6) many family forms exist and are legitimate (pp. 30-31). 2.1.2 Family Involvement Regardless of how they are able to demonstrate their investment, the notion that families play a very important role in creating a school that provides a nurturing and safe environment for their children is becoming widely accepted (Epstein et al., 1997). Families provide the social, cultural, and emotional supports that youth need to function well in school. Schools provide opportunities for childrens positive interactions with significant adults and other adolescents to enhance their home experiences and to support their continued development and related learning (Comer Haynes, 1991). According to Davies (1991) parental involvement shifts from parent focus to family focus, family to community agencies, school to home/neighborhood setting, eager parents to hard-to reach families, teachers/administrators agendas to family priorities, and deficit view of urban families to emphasis on inherent strengths of families. He further explains that even though non-traditional families are much more common nowadays than they were in the 1950s, alternative family structures are effective and should be recognised by the school. The paradigm Changing Definitions of Parental involvement according to Davies(1991) is as follows: from Parent Focus to Family Focus; from school to home or neighbourhood setting; from eager parents to hard to reach families; from teacher/administrator agenda to family priorities; from deficit view of urban families to emphasis on inherent strengths of families. Davies (1991) mentioned that non-traditional family units are getting more common, but the alternative family structures are effective and should be recognised as they do impact in the education and performance of students. 2.1.3 Types of parental involvement Fan and Chen (2001) in their meta-analysis found that researchers commonly conceptualised parental involvement as having multiple dimensions. Research conducted over a number of years have proved that there are numerous types of parenting practices associated with positive school-related academic and social competencies. These are: (a) parental participation in school-related activities, for instance monitoring homework and attending parent-teacher association meetings (Desimone, 1999; Keith et al., 1993; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch Darling, 1992); (b) parental encouragement of positive school behaviors (Atkinson Forehand, 1979; Barth, 1979; Kelley, 1952; Schumaker, Hovell, Sherman, 1977; Seginer, 1983); and (c) parental expectations for achievement and attainment (Ainley, Foreman, Sheret,1991; Fan Chen, 2001; Scott-Jones, 1995; Seginer). Similarly, Epstein (2001) has distinguished six types of parental involvement namely: parenting; communication; volunteering; home tutoring; involvement in decision-making; and, collaboration with the community. Epsteins model presents family, school and community as overlapping spheres of influence, the congruence of which is of considerable importance for the optimal development of children. 2.2 The effect of parental involvement on childrens achievements It is generally believed that the parents do play an important role in the education of their children and there is now an extensive research literature indicating that parental involvement is advantageous for children of all ages (Cox 2005; Desforges and Abouchaar 2003; Eccles and Harold 1993; Epstein 2001). Research has shown that one of the most promising ways to increase students achievement is to involve their families (Chavkin, 1993; Henderson Berla, 1994). Herbert Walberg (1984) found that family participation in education was twice as predictive of academic learning as family socioeconomic status. Establishing partnerships with families has many benefits for schools and families, but Epstein says, the main reason to create such partnerships is to help all youngsters succeed in school and in later life (1995, p. 701). When parents participate in their childrens schooling, students may experience more academic and social success. Epstein (2001) suggests that parents who are informed and involved in their childrens school can positively impact their childs attitude and performance. Drawing a causal link between parental involvement and student achievement is challenging; much of the research on parent involvement and student performance is therefore correlational (Scott Stein Thorkildsen, 1999). Although the impact of parental involvement is dependent on a number of contextual variables, there are many advantages attributed to parental involvement. Involvement at home, especially parents discussing school activities and helping children plan their programs, has the strongest impact on academic achievement (Sui-Chu Willms, 1996; VanVoorhis, 2003). Researchers have also found that parent-child discussion about school helps improve academic achievement and reduce problematic behavior (Epstein Sheldon, 2002; McNeal, 1999; Sheldon Epstein, 2005). McLaughlin and Shields (1986), for example, reported that parents can contribute to improved student achievement through their involvement in (a) the selection of appropriate reading materials, (b) targeting educational services, and (c) the use of particular pedagogical strategies. Clark (1983) found a correlation between achievement in reading and mathematics and the number of books at home. Parent involvement is absolutely essential to student achievement in school and in life say (Campbell Glasgow, 2010). The overwhelming studies and research indicate that there are indeed positive academic outcomes stemming from parental involvement with benefits beginning in the early childhood throughout adolescence and beyond (Henderson Mapp, 2002; Patrikakou, Weisberg, Redding, Walberg, 2005). Buchmann and Dalton (2002) suggest a possible linkage between differences in institutional contexts of educational system and variation in the effect of parental involvement on childrens educational outcomes while examining variation across 12 countries in the effect of mothers and peers attitudes toward academic performance on educational aspiration among middle-school (lower secondary school) students. The comparisons across 12 countries indicate significant variation in the influence of parental attitude on childrens educational aspiration across countries with different structural features of educational system. 2.3 Factors affecting Students Academic Achievements The students performance or academic achievement plays an important role in producing the good quality school leavers who will become good manpower for any country. There are actually numerous factors that affect the performance and achievement of students. Parents influence their childrens academic achievement (Spera, 2005). High family socioeconomic status, positive parenting practices, positive aspects of parents personality, and high marital quality are associated with school success (Harold, Aitken, Shelton, 2007; Heaven Newbury, 2004; Robertson Reynolds, 2010). Children whose parents who actively promote learning in the home more positively engage in relationships outside the home and in learning (Marchant, Paulson, Rothlisberg, 2001), perhaps because these parents help children approach learning environments more positively. The premise that home environment risks, such as negative parenting (Clark, Dogan, Akbar, 2003), a chaotic household (Brown Low, 2008), parents low educational attainment or income level (Davis-Kean, 2005), and single-parent family structure (Zill, 1996), are correlates of poor academic functioning is also well supported. According to a report on Monitoring Learning Achievement (1999) the Determinants of childs performance were identified to be as follows: Socio-economic status of the childs family had a very strong impact on achievement at school. (b) Parental education level and parents opinion about education were decisive factors affecting performance of the children at school. (c) The child who had access to learning through technology and through materials at home was more likely to do better at school. (d) Pupils who had a positive attitude to school and teachers as well as those who used English to communicate performed better on the tests. (e) Children who had more experienced teachers at school and who were more frequently assessed became better learners. 2.3.1 Student Demographics and Students Achievement Students from ethnic minority backgrounds and low income families are more at risk for poor school outcomes and are becoming an increasing share of the student population. Many studies have linked the educational disadvantage of minority students to a combination of out-of-school factors, many of which center on family characteristics, such as poverty and parents education. Linn (2005) says that prior achievement or other relevant characteristics of the student body may help to explain current levels of achievement while (Carlson, 2002; Ponisciak Bryk, 2005) point out that when large scale assessments are used as the sole measure of accountability, the characteristics of the schools clientele are confounded with change that is directly attributable to the effectiveness of the school producing biased estimates of school effects. Children coming from middle-class family may have a head start given their higher social position and income may lead to better quality housing, more availability of books and study facilities at home such as their own room, internet access facility as well as the ability to afford private tuition. According to the University of Mauritius study on private tuition (1989), children from better off families take more tuition than students from poor families and they tend to perform better. A better measure of a schools effect on student achievement should account for the nature of students in the schools as well as the characteristics of the schools themselves. For example the correlation according to Sirin (2005) between socio-economic status and achievement tends to be approximately 0.30 at the student level. When aggregated to the school level, the correlation between socio-economic and academic achievement is approximately 0.60 (Sirin, 2005), though that correlation has been estimated to be even higher (0.73) in an earlier meta-analysis (White, 1982). 2.3.2 School Leadership and Students Achievement Studies have revealed that strong leaders are critical to successful learning environments (Briggs Wohlstetter, 2003; Hallinger, Bickman, Davis, 1996; Haycock, Jerald, Huang, 2001; Jesse, Davis, Pokorny, 2004; McGee, 2004; Muijs, Harris, Chapman, Stoll, Russ, 2004; Murphy, 2004; Scribner Scribner, 2001; Snipes, 2004; Yau, 2002). There are different characteristics of strong leaders that have been mentioned in the literature: Leaders have a clear vision for their schools that is continuously communicated to school staff and parents (Cole-Henderson, 2000; EdSource, 2006; Jesse et al., 2004); they have high expectations for all students (Cole-Henderson, 2000; EdSource, 2006; McGee, 2004; Scribner et al., 2001); and they are able to translate their vision and expectations into concrete goals for teachers by aligning curriculum with state standards and standardized tests (EdSource, 2006; Education Trust, 2003). 2.3.3 School Systems and Students Achievement In many countries, including Mauritius to some extent, school systems are tracked where students are assigned to different school types based on their prior performance. These tracks range from purely academic tracks to vocational tracks and prepare students for different educational and labor market destinations (Marks, Cresswell, Ainley, 2006; Reyes, 2010). In general most secondary school systems maintain a distinction between academic and vocational education. The specifics may be different from place to place, but in most countries academic education prepares students for college or for a university whereas vocational education prepares them for immediate entry into the labor market (Shavit, Blossfeld 1993). Schools may be involved in the socio-economic inequalities in education in a number of ways. Wealthy families can afford a superior education for their children by sending them to fee-paying private schools. In countries with tracked school systems, the allocation of stude nts to the more academic school tracks may be biased towards students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. 2.3.5 Parental Involvement and Students Achievement Studies on the influence of parenting on school outcomes have mainly focused on specific parental practices such as involvement in their childs education, mostly in relation to academic achievement and rarely in relation to school dropout (McNeal, 1999; Rumherger, 1995). Studies conducted among specific grades and subject areas support the contention that parental involvement can influence students academic achievement regardless of the students age or subject. For example, Stegelin (2003), Wirtz Schumacher (2003), and Hertz-Lazarowitz Horovitz (2002) focused on early childhood education and literacy, noting a link between families who engage in literacy activities at home and their childrens success with reading and writing. Henderson and Berla (1994) say that the most accurate predictor of a students achievement in school is not income or social status but the extent to which that students family is able to create a home environment that encourages learning; express high but not unrealistic expectations for their childrens achievement and future careers and become involved in their childrens education at school and in the community. There exists an extensive research literature indicating that Parental Involvement is advantageous for children. This includes home-based Parental involvement such as listening to children read and supervision of homework as well as school-based Parental Involvement such as attending parent education workshops and parent-teacher meetings. The effectiveness of both home-based and school-based Parental Involvement in facilitating academic achievement has been reported by several reviews and meta-analyses of the literature (Fan and Chen 2001; Henderson and Mapp 2002; Jeynes 2005, 2007; Pomerantz, Moorman, and Litwack 2007). Mariaye (2008) has found that higher levels of education of parents are often related to better provision of financial resources, thus leading to achievement of children. 2.4 Barriers to parental involvement Though there is much importance attached to parental involvement it is still being ignored in many schools. Lazar and Slostad (1999) believe that parents are willing to get involved in the education of their children, but the negative perceptions of parents persist because teacher education programs do not educate teachers to work with parents. Foster and Loven (1992) also shared that the major explanation for this, according to researchers, is the fact that very little attention is given to preparing teachers to work with parents and other adults (Lazar, 1999, p. 207). According to Lazar and Slostad, (1999) the way parents viewed their roles was shaped by the circumstances and norms of particular cultures and their beliefs about their own effectiveness as teachers or tutors. Epstein (1991) found out that teachers had doubts whether they could motivate parents to become more involved even though they thought that parental involvement would improve students achievement. Teachers lack the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and strategies needed to collaborate with families leading to a weak school-family partnership (De Acosta, 1996; Epstein Dauber, 1991; Foster Loven, 1992; Greenwood Hickman, 1991; Midkiff Lawler-Prince, 1992; Williams,1992). Major barriers to parental involvement in schools include the school environment, school culture, time constraint, changing demographics and employment patterns, and the lack of teacher preparation in involving parents in their childrens schooling (New Skills for Schools, 1997; National PTA, 1997). 2.5 Overcoming barriers to parental involvement Strategies for overcoming barriers to parental involvement in schools include overcoming time and resource constraints, providing information and training to parents and school staff, restructuring schools to support family involvement, bridging school-family differences, getting external supports for partnerships, meeting families basic needs, providing flexible times and places for parental involvement, and helping staff communication with parents (The U.S. Department of Education, 2004; Family Involvement in Childrens Education October 1997). The various barriers to Parental involvement can be categorised by adapting Epsteins (2001) framework of overlapping spheres of influence focused on the three areas of family, school and community. 2.5.1 Parents beliefs about Parental Involvement Parents beliefs about various issues can act as barriers to effective parental involvement. Firstly, the way that parents view their role in the education of their children is crucial. Parents who believe that their role is only to get children to school, which then takes over responsibility for their education, will not be willing to be actively involved in either school-based or home-based parental involvement. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) reported that this attitude is more prevalent in some communities and national cultures than others, but that there is considerable variation within these. For example, Clark (1983), in his research on high achieving students from low-income black families, found that what distinguished the parents of these students from others at the school was that they believed that they should be involved in their childrens education, by both supporting their learning at home and interacting constructively with schools. Clark found that parents of high a chieving students had a greater belief than the other parents that they could effectively help their children to do better at school. 2.5.2 Parents perceptions of invitations for involvement One other potential barrier to parental involvement is parents perceptions of the level of explicit and implicit invitations for involvement. According to Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) when parents think that Parental Involvement is not valued by teachers or schools they are less likely to get involved. Thus, parents perceptions of invitations from schools are considered crucial in developing effective parental involvement. Epstein (2001) has found that parents are most effectively involved when teachers actively encourage them to get involved. Eccles and Harold (1993) believe that teachers with positive, facilitating attitudes toward involving parents encourage more parents to become involved and increase the effectiveness of parental involvement. When parents perceive that teachers are not open to involve them, there tends to be a major barrier to parental involvement. Similarly, when schools are welcoming to parents and make it clear that they value parental involvement, the s chools develop more effective parental involvement than schools that do not appear inviting to parents. Secondary schools are often seen by parents as large bureaucratic organisations which are not welcoming to parents, which is considered to be one of the reasons why there is a tendency for higher levels of parental involvement in primary than secondary schools (Eccles and Harold 1993). 2.5.3 Parents Level of Education Parents level of education will influence their views on whether they have sufficient skills and knowledge to engage in different aspects of parental involvement (Green et al. 2007). For example, parents who have not completed secondary school themselves may be diffident about helping their children with homework once the latter get to secondary school. Also, parents who do not have a university degree may feel in some ways inferior to teachers who they know are better qualified than them and therefore be reluctant to work closely with the teachers. In general, children of parents with higher levels of education perform better, on average, on assessments of student achievement. 2.5.4 Parent current life status Family circumstances can be major barriers to parental involvement. For example, single parents and those with young families or large families may find it difficult to get involved in education of their children because of their responsibilities. Parents work situations can also be a factor. When parents are unemployed money could be an issue as they may not be able to afford a car or to pay babysitters in order to get to school meetings. For parents with jobs, whether both parents work and the kind of jobs they have may be issues. When both parents work they will have less time to devote for both home-based and school-based parental involvement. Similarly while some jobs allow little flexibility for taking time off for school-based parental involvement, other jobs may leave parents too tired at the end of the day to help children with homework (Catsambis 2001; Green et al. 2007). 2.5.5 Class, ethnicity and gender There exist also barriers regarding to class, ethnicity and gender of parents that account for the difference between rhetoric and reality in parental involvement. Reay (1998) suggests that it is those parents who possess cultural capital which matches that generally valued by schools. In contrast, working-class parents, although they possess their own undervalued cultural capital, are aware of the difference between the cultural capital they possess and that of teachers. Reay (1998) concludes that, for working-class families, home-school relationships are about separateness, whereas for middle-class families they are about interconnectedness, and this difference shapes their respective attitudes towards parental involvement. The barriers related to ethnicity and culture also play an important role. According to a report by Koki and Lee (1998) some of the issues involved in parental involvement for parents in New Zealand who have come from the Pacific Islands. They make the point that it is impossible to understand these issues outside of the context of the history of Pacific education and cultural tradition, but the reality is that parental involvement programmes typically pay scant regard to these issues. 2.5.6 Learning difficulties and disabilities The performance of at school can be both a barrier or facilitating factor for parental involvement. According to Eccles and Harold (1993) when children are struggling with their school work, due to learning difficulties or disabilities, then parents are generally more inclined to be active in parental involvement activities. Many authorities on special needs education consider that involving parents is an essential aspect of effective education for children with disabilities or learning difficulties (Hornby 1995; Seligman 2000). The involvement of parents is required for the process of implementing individual education programmes and this facilitates parental involvement for many parents whose children have learning difficulties or disabilities. But this is not always the case as there are many possible areas for disagreement between schools and parents of children with learning difficulties or disabilities, which can then act as barriers to effective parental involvement. For instan ce, when parents consider that their children can achieve more academically or when teachers want more support from parents in backing up at home what children are working on at school (Seligman 2000). 2.6 Strategies to involve parents To achieve more parental involvement, the school or teachers can help to adjust to parents work schedules, interests, and special abilities to involve them in their childs education 2.6.1 Parenting Parents can be involved in their childs schooling in many ways. One way teachers can get these parents involved is by providing them information about parenting practices. Parents with children with behavior problems are interested in learning about specialised reinforcement and discipline techniques that can be applied in their home. Research has shown that students who are disruptive in schools are also disruptive at home (Walker et al., 1995). Teachers can be useful by providing suggestions on how to teach specific skills at home. Parents who learn new parenting skills and teach their child at home are making positive contributions to their childs education. 2.6.2 Communication Encouraging parents to communicate with the school about important information about their child is another way parents can be involved. Darch, Craig, Miao, Yu, Shippen, and Peggy(2004) recommend that teachers ask parents to discuss their childs behaviour at home, his or her attitudes about school and learning, and whether there are home problems impacting the childs behavior at school. It is helpful if teachers ask parents about their expectations about their childs performance. 2.6.3 Volunteering Darch et al.,(2004) also suggest that one role that some parents can play is to provide instructional or management support in the classroom. For example, parents can be tutors for their own child or other students in the classroom. Also, parents can serve by grading papers, participating in field trips, and reading to groups of students. The advantages of including parents in these activities are many. Parents visibility in the classroom can be helpful in managing children. Also, if parents can provide instructional support, the improved learning performances of students will have a positive impact on their classroom behavior. 2.6.4 Instruction According to Darch et al, (2004) parents can also be involved in their childs school program by providing instructional and management support in their homes. Teachers may ask parents to allocate time for their childs homework, provide instructional support for academic assignments, and carry out home-based reinforcement programs. For parents to effectively take this role, they must be willing to participate and must have skills to implement home-based programs. However, as Hoover-Demsey and Sandler (1997) point out, many parents do not see the importance of taking an active role in their childs education. Thus, teachers must provide parents with clear guidelines on how they can be helpful at home and, if necessary, information on how to implement instructional and management strategies at home. An advantage of these activities is that the child is provided extra instruction at home that leads to more successful learning and motivation in the classroom. 2.6.5 School-Wide Involvement Teachers can suggest to parents that they be involved in school-wide activities. (Darch et al., 2004). The goal is to link parents to activities beyond their childs classroom: parents can be involved in PTA meetings, school-wide parent advisory councils, volunteer to work in the school office, and participate on a school-wide discipline committee. The advantages of linking parents into school wide activities are obvious. The presence of parents throughout the school is related to higher levels of student achievement and decreases school-wide disruptive behaviors. Parents involved with school-wide activities become more supportive of teachers and school policy. 2.7 How do schools involve parents? According to Hanke (2006) lack of parental involvement is due to lack of helpful information to parents. Emails, phone, letters, newsletters and personal contacts can be made by schools to reach out to parents. If schools communicate with parents regularly and consistently using the various means, the gap between school and parental involvement will be reduced. Based on the recent report on the Commonwealth conference on education (2012) the technology is available for ICT to be the foundation for change in education provisioning: from the classroom to the ministerial committee room; from the way teachers relate to their students, to the increasing of parental involvement in schools. Students expectations and achievement will increase if involvement are identified by Epstein and associate (1997): parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community. Reenay and Vivian (2007) have explained that even though the invention of new technologies has made it easier for schools to reach out to parents (through emails, cell phones and internet websites), the use of traditional methods in communication has been found to be an effective way for schools to communicate with parents, but this has been limited in use b